Percent of Beef Grazing Land Factory Farm

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Chapter 2: Livestock grazing systems & the environment

Ecology challenges
Grazing systems of the arid areas
Grazing systems in the semi-arid and sub-humid tropics
Grazing systems and tropical rainforests
Grazing systems in temperate zones
Conclusion

Livestock grazing systems & the environment

Most 60 Percent of the world's pasture land (near 2.2 million km²), just less than half the globe's usable surface is covered by grazing systems. Distributed between arid, semi arid and sub humid, humid, temperate and tropical highlands zones, this supports about 360 million cattle (half of which are in the humid savannas), and over 600 million sheep and goats, by and large in the arid rangelands. The distribution of livestock over the dissimilar ecological zones is provided in Annex Table 2.

Grazing systems supply about 9 per centum of the earth'due south production of beef and near 30 percent of the world's product of sheep and caprine animal meat. For an estimated 100 million people in arid areas, and probably a similar number in other zones, grazing livestock is the only possible source of livelihood.

Environmental challenges

Grazing can exist visualized as cute cows in lush pastures in north-western Europe or New Zealand-livestock in harmony with nature. Indeed, livestock can better soil and vegetation cover and plant and animal biodiversity, equally described in this affiliate'south instance studies of widely different atmospheric condition in Republic of kenya, the western United States and Guinea. By removing biomass, which otherwise might provide the fuel for bush fires, by controlling shrub growth and by dispersing seeds through their hoofs and manure, grazing animals tin meliorate plant species limerick. In addition, trampling can stimulate grass tillering, meliorate seed formation and break-up difficult soil crusts.

Even so, many people associate grazing animals with overgrazing, soil degradation and deforestation. To them livestock keeping in arid regions of the tropics provokes images of clouds of dust, bleached cow skeletons and an advancing desert. The two most quoted sources are the Global Assessment of Soil Deposition (Oldeman et al., 1991), which estimates that 680 million hectares of rangeland have go degraded since 1945, and Dregne et al., (1991) who argue that 73 percent of the globe's 4.5 billion hectares of rangeland is moderately or severely degraded. In humid areas, livestock are associated with ranch encroachment and deforestation of tropical rainforests and contest with wildlife.

Prolonged heavy grazing undoubtedly contributes to the disappearance of palatable species and the subsequent dominance past other, less palatable, herbaceous plants or bushes. Such loss of plant and, in consequence, beast biodiversity can require a long regenerative cycle (30 years in savannas, 100 years in rainforests). Excessive livestock grazing as well causes soil compaction and erosion, decreased soil fertility and water infiltration, and a loss in organic matter content and h2o storage chapters. On the other mitt, total absence of grazing as well reduces biodiversity because a thick awning of shrubs and trees develops which intercepts light and wet and results in overprotected found communities which are susceptible to natural disasters.

The environmental challenge is thus to identify the policies, institutions and technologies which volition enhance the positive and mitigate the negative effects of grazing. Ecology challenges, issues and options differ significantly according to climate and land capabilities. Livestock-environment interactions are therefore described separately for the barren, semi-arid and sub-boiling, humid rainforest, and temperate and tropical highlands grazing systems respectively. As will exist seen, that differentiation is particularly important for the arid eco-systems. As aridity increases, so does variability of rainfall, to the extent that the periodicity of rain becomes the single near important cistron affecting the state of the natural resource base. Classical concepts of vegetation succession and climax vegetation exercise not apply in such environments and new concepts are required. These are detailed below.

Grazing systems of the arid areas

State
Driving forces
Response: Engineering and policy options

State

Land. Probably more than any other organization, at least until recently, arid rangelandsⁱ have been associated with land degradation. The concept of "desertification" originated from the sight of degrading fringes of arid rangelands and advancing deserts. In improver, arid grazing systems and nomadic pastoralism have been associated with inefficient and astern product.

¹ Arid rangelands refers to land with mostly native and annual vegetation, with an boilerplate growing season of less than 75 days.

Area of Sahara desert (million km ² )

The type of variation presented in this graph highlights the difficulty in obtaining an accurate assessment of land deposition in barren areas.

Box ii.1 The resilience of the arid lands.

THE GRAPH how the Sahara expands and contracts over time (and conversely the Sahelian rangelands contract and expand) as measured infrared reflection of the vegetation. it shows the issue of the dry year of 1984 (rainfall arrears of 55%) and the recovery in 1988 (rainfall arrears of nineteen%)

Over the last decade these views have changed radically. First, at that place is now pregnant evidence that in the barren zones the extent of land deposition is greatly exaggerated. Function of the doom view of continuing degradation is caused by problems of definition and time frame. Definitions were based on parameters, which could not easily exist measured ("diminution or destruction of biological cloth, which can pb to desert-like weather" (UN 1977), or mixed process and end state ("the expression of natural, economic and social processes, which destroy the equilibrium of soil, vegetation, air and water" (FAO/UNEP, 1984)). Even more than importantly, well-nigh assessments covered only a short period, and did not include the concept of reversibility, which seems disquisitional from a development and long term sustainability perspective (Nelson, 1990). If desertification is divers as an irreversible process of land degradation, there is less "desertification" than previously claimed. Two recent findings support this view:

• Long term monitoring of the infra-red reflection index (measuring the corporeality of greenish biomass) by NASA in West Africa (Tucker et al., 1991), clearly shows the "contracting and expanding Sahara", rather than a continuously expanding desert (see Box 2.1). More than contempo observations confirm this earlier finding. In upshot, the northern vegetation limit of the Sahel is now approximately where it was in 1970 (Tucker, personal advice);

• An analysis, carried out nether this written report, shows an overall increase in productivity of Sahelian land and livestock (Box ii.2) admitting with considerable year to yr variations. While this increase in productivity is undoubtedly the effect of several factors, it certainly does not point to the continuing downward spiral in pasture production, and hence productivity, which has traditionally been assumed.

Series of vegetation of Mali in consecutive years at the same time each twelvemonth (a)

Series of vegetation of Mali in consecutive years at the same time each year (b)

Series of vegetation of Mali in sequent years at the same time each year (c)

Photo series of a vegetation of Republic of mali in consecutive years at the aforementioned fourth dimension each year Courtesy ILCA.

Secondly, there is disarming evidence that traditional transhumance production systems on arid rangelands are highly efficient. Studies evidence that production of protein per hectare of traditional nomadic pastoralists in Mali and Botswana is two- or three-fold higher (and at much lower cost in non-renewable fuel resource) than production from sedentary production systems or ranching under similar climatic conditions in Australia and the USA respectively (Breman and de Wit, 1983, de Ridder and Wagenaar, 1984). In addition, barren grazing systems are often multiple-use systems, with wildlife and other plant products being important additional products.

Productivity trends in the Sahel.

Box ii.2 Productivity trends in the Sahel.

AN Analysis of livestock production in five Sahelian countries over a thirty twelvemonth period, carried out equally part of this study, shows a 93 percent increment in the meat produced per ha, and 47 percentage increase in the meat produced per caput. At the same time, there was a 22 pct increase in the brute population (from 14.5 to 17.6 million TLU²) over the same menses.

² Burkina Faso, Chad, Republic of mali, Niger, Senegal and Sudan

This productivity increment occurs in both cattle and modest ruminants. Part of the increased productivity may be the event of a progressive shift of the livestock population to the higher potential areas in more humid zones, and the increased utilize of crop residues. Withal, autonomously from the sharp inter-annual variation, the long term trend points to sustained productivity, and to an manifestly stable resources base of operations.

Source: Analysis carried out nether this study, based on FAO product data.

The greatest degradation of land and vegetation is around settlements and h2o points. These areas are usually within a radius of virtually 1-v km of the waterpoint and ofttimes wait quite spectacular. Even so, bold an average altitude of x to 30 km between waterpoints, degraded areas would, fifty-fifty in the worst cases, amount to no more than 10 percent of the total expanse.

Biodiversity. Arid rangelands contain a broad variety of plant species for wild and domestic herbivores. For example, Le Houerou (1989) estimates that, in Africa, there are peradventure equally many as iii,500 establish species upon which the continent'south herbivores feed, compared with less than 150 species on which humans depend. There is no widespread chance of an immediate irreversible loss of plant biodiversity. Mixed grazing systems (cattle, small ruminants, camels and wildlife) assist to maintain broad plant multifariousness and, because the vegetation is extremely resilient, any changes in the vegetation are likely to be the result of an unusually dry flow and, therefore, temporary.

Driving forces

Underlying pressures. The way virtually dryland ecosystems are traditionally used explains, to a large extent, their resilience. Arid rangelands have traditionally been used nether a communal belongings authorities by nomadic producers who move their stock in search of pasture according to season. From the wet flavour grazing they volition move their animals to higher-potential river valleys, cropland or mountain meadows (the "key resource") for the dry flavour. With highly variable rainfall (both in time and space), pastoral economies are typically of the "bust and boom" type: a "smash" when rainfall is plentiful and herds and flocks grow, and a "bust" when drought (or belatedly winter storms in Central Asia) occurs and animals die. Thus, abiotic factors such as rainfall, rather than livestock density, determine long term principal product and vegetation comprehend (Mearns, 1996).

This continuous dis-equilibrium conserves soil and vegetation, peculiarly annual vegetation in more than barren areas, because grazing pressure has to suit to the quantity of feed bachelor. The theoretical bases for range direction under those atmospheric condition ("opportunistic range management") accept recently been well described by Behnke, Scoones and Kerven (1993) and Scoones (1994).

A substantial body of bear witness from the last decade (Thomas and Middleton, 1994), shows that barren regions incorporate dynamic and highly resilient ecosystems, with a potent chapters to regenerate rapidly when the rains return. Similarly, traditional pastoral systems have conserved biodiversity because pastoralists accept a direct interest in preserving a wide variety of plants and animals. Gathering range products, such as medicinal plants, gums and resins, is an important function of the pastoral way of life.

The fundamental driving strength on natural resources is population pressure, especially that practical from exterior the arid rangelands and their traditional inhabitants. While population growth of pastoral peoples has been slow (Pratt et al., in press), growth of non-pastoral groups in the arid and semi-arid regions take been amid the highest in the globe. This strong growth of other groups results in an increasing encroachment by abundant farmers on to the pastoralists' "cardinal resource" sites. Flood plains which have been traditionally used for wet season grazing, such equally the Interior Delta of the Niger and the Senegal Valley in West Africa, and also smaller sites of high potential, are being converted into cropland. Furthermore, flexibility of brute movement is progressively hampered by increased population pressure and loss of corridors between wet and dry flavor grazing areas. Stock is increasingly full-bodied the unabridged year on the same lands, breaking the ecologically sound bike of alternating use of wet and dry season grazing areas, leading to over-apply of dry flavour grazing country and, inevitably, to man suffering. Such increased pressure often results in war, equally shown by the recent confrontation between Senegal and Mauritania and the many armed conflicts in Due east Africa.

Increased population pressure level also leads to greater water evolution and permanent human settlement in arid rangelands. Although the directly effect of waterpoints on state degradation is relatively limited, the development of h2o supplies for more intensive use can upset an entire eco-system. It may pb to de facto privatization of state around the water bespeak (IFAD, 1995) and change the relationship betwixt traditional moisture and dry season grazing areas, changing traditional dry flavour grazing into yr around grazing.

Simply not all forces are exogenous to the pastoral system. In the Borana region of southern Ethiopia, because of ethnic population growth, the number of milk producing cattle per head of the pastoral population is falling. In consequence, the pastoralists face increasing poverty, decreasing food energy levels and greater gamble from the furnishings of drought (Coppock 1996). Furthermore, the larger number of people in the region means that fuelwood is being cut at an always greater rate. The inevitable issue of all these pressures is state degradation. Drought frequently exacerbates such situations and, indeed, the ability to recover later drought is one of the main indicators of long term environmental and social sustainability of barren grazing systems.

Policy pressures. Several human activities exacerbate the fundamental driving force of increasing population pressure level. They are:

"Stabilization" of the system . Oft well-intentioned policies sought and still seek to stabilize the "nail and bust" cycles which exist between human, animals and vegetation in arid rangelands. Examples of these are:

• Attempts to regulate the stocking charge per unit. This was the master focus of many rangeland development projects in the seventies and early eighties. Development projects promoted private ranch development, or the allocation of grazing areas to groups, under strict maximum stocking rate obligations. Such attempts failed completely considering of the irrelevance of any conveying capacity estimate under variable weather condition and because of the difficulty of enforcement (Box ii.3). In addition, these attempts reduced the essential mobility and flexibility of the organization, and concentrated stock on limited grazing areas, which may have received little pelting.

• Feed subsidies for drought relief. Nether the argument that it would be necessary to protect national livestock avails, North African and Middle Eastern governments, in detail, have had a policy of subsidizing feed grains as emergency help in times of drought. As well the questionable social effect (subsidized feed tends to benefit wealthier herders only) and the doubtful overall economical benefit, subsidized feed also has a harmful outcome on the rangelands. The tendency is for too many animals to exist retained on the rangeland, thereby preventing normal regeneration of the vegetation after drought.

Changes in access to land . Traditionally, Muslim land tenure rules favour crop farmers over pastoral herders in access to land because "laying of the hand" (due east.g. show of use) confers sectional ownership. This was exacerbated by nationalization of arid rangelands which was introduced by many governments in the postcolonial flow in Africa and Asia (IFAD, 1995) and undermined nonetheless further the intricate fabric of customary practice. An ecologically well-balanced system of communal state apply degenerated into a "free for all" open up access system in much of sub-Saharan Africa and Bharat or was replaced by private farms, such every bit in People's democratic republic of algeria, Republic of botswana and Zimbabwe. Private farms were as well small to let an efficient employ of the erratic rainfall patterns inherent in these areas. In communal areas, the traditional collective internal subject in the management of the resources disappeared and overgrazing and land degradation followed. Jodha (1992) demonstrated this most convincingly in India (see Box 2.4). The same mistakes are now occurring in the Middle Eastward and are likely in Central Asia. Under the slogan "privatization is desirable", state farms are privatized, the more productive land (and specially the cardinal resources) falls into the hands of the near powerful individuals and sound management of the entire resource base is put in jeopardy.

Box 2.iii Experiences with stocking rate controls.

TO DEVELOP new rnanagement practices for barren rangelands, GTZ sponsored from 1981-1993 a controlled grazing experiment in Senegal, seeking to remainder available pasture and stocking rates inside a fixed territory in half-dozen 200 hectare plots, privatized for the purpose of the experiment. The system was monitored for 12 years for its environmental and socio-economic touch on and herd performance, and results were compared with those from herds outside the scheme.

Several problems emerged. First, the constant stocking density proved to exist incompatible with the wide variations in rainfall and therefore available forage. In bad years, stocking densities were likewise high and herds had to exist moved out to survive. Available forage was insufficient in three years merely under-utilized in 4 years out of the 12. Simply in ii years did stocking density actually match carrying capacity. Second, the impact on vegetation was more than negative than positive, owing to under-utilization, a decline in quality of pasture, and a thinning out of drought-resistant fodder species. Third, while animal production was good in the best years, animal vulnerability increased in bad years.

Comparisons with pastoral management practices within and outside the scheme revealed the superiority of the latter. The controlled grazing experiment revealed the inherent limitations of the concept of conveying capacity in an environment not at equilibrium; the difficulties of applying a airtight model of water and grazing direction on a large calibration; the reduction in creature mobility and flexibility which resulted; and the removal of the positive symbiotic interaction of animals and plan. communities. GTZ concluded that efforts to back up pastoralists' self-reliance would have to depend much more on the creation of a favorable institutional environment, including securing pastoral land rights, and access to fall-back areas.

Source: Mearns, 1996, from; Th�baud, Grell and Miehe, 1955.

Box 2.4 Deterioration of the common belongings resource (CPR) in India.

IN A Report of 75 villages in vii rather barren states of India, Jodha (1992) found that the CPR area had declined by as much every bit 30 to 50 percent between the 1950s and 1982, and at that place had been a reduction of cattle by 20 percent in favour of pocket-sized ruminants. The traditional communal management of the CPR had basically cleaved downwardly:

• While in 1950 lxx villages had formal or informal rules for the management of the CPR, in 1982 only eight villages maintained those rules.

• While in 1950 fifty-5 villages levied formal or informal taxes to maintain the CPR, none did so in 1982.

• While in 1950 sixty-five villages had formal or informal obligations to maintain their CPR, in 1982 there were just thirteen.

Thus traditional CPR management shifted to open up admission, causing a significant degradation of the CPRs as shown past the decrease, by well-nigh 75 percent, of the number of trees in the CPR, and the pass up in the number of grazing days.

Source: Jodha, 1992.

Inappropriate incentives . Under a nationalistic strategy of food production cocky-sufficiency, many governments (peculiarly in North Africa and Westward Asia), have subsidized tractors and fuel and supported high producer prices for domestic cereal product, further encouraging the encroachment of crops in the "cardinal resources" sites of the arid zones. Many of these areas are marginal for crop tillage and would not have been cultivated without the subsidies. All the same, every bit noted before, these key resource areas constitute the "condom internet" for rangeland livestock production and are the key to environmentally sound barren country management. Cheap fuel and trucks have also led to "motorized nomadism" which has allowed the wealthier herders to move their animals rapidly to wherever pasture was available. This has also interfered with the normal regeneration process of the emerging vegetation. Finally, high meat import tariffs also contributed to over stocking.

Response: Engineering science and policy options

The over-riding need is to stop the building-up of further human pressure level in arid zones. As discussed, arid rangelands are already efficiently used and no significant increases in productivity can be envisaged. Since populations in these areas experience a down spiral of declining livestock/people ratios and increased vulnerability to drought, employment generation outside the dry rangelands is therefore the nearly disquisitional component of developing sustainable rangeland resource use in the arid zones.

As the second priority, although even so of crucial importance, external interventions in the arrangement need to take account of the not-equilibrium status of pastoral systems in arid zones and raise rather than restrict flexibility and mobility. This ways that attempts to regulate stocking rate should be stopped. Kickoff, the conveying chapters of rangelands in these non-equilibrium environments cannot be estimated with any adequate degree of reliability. 2d, such estimates can even be unsafe, equally they may atomic number 82 to the wrong intervention in an attempt to control stocking rates (encounter Box two.iii). Third, even apart from the technical flaws in the estimation of the conveying capacity, experience has shown that it is almost always impossible to enforce stocking rates.

The third priority should be the strengthening of traditional pastoral institutions and resource management practices. "Getting the institutions right", by empowering pastoral people, is now generally considered the main challenge in pastoral and arid country evolution. Furthermore at that place has been a growing acknowledgment of the multiple uses that arid rangelands provide to a wide variety of users (IFAD, 1995, de Haan, 1996).

Specific actions to support these strategy elements are to develop effective co-management regimes, forging partnerships between the State and a wide multifariousness of users, with the State carrying the overall responsibility for arbitrating alien interests at national level, and facilitating negotiation. Practical management decisions and negotiations betwixt competing users should, however, be delegated to the local level (Mearns, 1996). The delegation of powers would aim to strengthen:

• the application of the "subsidiarity" principle (Swift, 1995), inside the local administrative capability which requires devolution to local groups of those public authoritative powers that undermine or duplicate traditional governance structures. The cosmos of pastoral associations has already been an of import focus of barren country institution building, although results accept been mixed (Box 2.5);

• customary resource user rights. The need for flexibility and mobility would require the boundaries to be "fuzzy" (Behnke and Kerven, 1994), although with more conspicuously defined territorial boundaries for the "key resource";

• conflict resolution mechanisms, with clear sets of procedural tasks for formal law, and clearer definition of when customary police force takes precedence (Swift, 1995).

Box 2.5 Pastoral organizations and arid state direction; lessons from the by.

THE DEVELOPMENT of grassroots, regional national herder organizations has been a major thrust of most donors in W and North Africa over the last decade. While in that location has been considerable progress in establishing viable organizations for the provision of services such as beast wellness and education, these organizations have, with some exceptions, such equally the World Bank funded Centre Atlas programme in Morocco, been less successful in range direction (Shanmugaratnam et al., 1992). They failed to fully facilitate the participatory process, equally they were embedded in disciplinarian cultures of government, projection administrations and the social structure of the groups themselves (Vedeld in de Haan, 1994). Key lessons which emerge from these experiences are the demand to (i) focus attention on procedural law and conflict resolution rather than on specifying rigid tenure rights (ii) assume a gradual transfer of responsibilities to pastoral groups, starting with services, and progressively moving towards more sophisticated responsibilities, such as range management; and (iii) tailor the size of the group to the goals envisaged. Range management tasks might, for example, demand a different group size than veterinary services.

The fourth priority is the identification of effective drought management policies. Irreversible land deposition in arid zones, if information technology occurs, originates as a result of high stocking rates during droughts. The appropriate drought strategy is to de-stock every bit early and rapidly as possible, rather than seeking to maintain maximum stock numbers. Policies and subsequent investments which support such rapid de-stocking are the development of savings and credit schemes, and infrastructure investments in roads, markets, slaughterhouses and common cold storage (Pratt et al., in printing). Nonetheless, little feel has been gained of the application of these concepts in dis-equilibrium systems. The only notable exception is Australia.

Incentive policies too play an important role in arriving at sustainable rangeland apply. Key elements of appropriate incentive policy would exist:

• Increasing the costs of grazing in order to reduce animal pressure would promote before off-take. The perception of pastoral people keeping livestock for wealth and social status has been abandoned and there is at present a general credence that pastoralists' behaviour is, as may be expected, economically rational. This economic rationale should induce herders to forsake liveweight gains of their about mature and just slowly growing animals, and sell them before, because the cost of the grazing would outweigh the benefits of the final liveweight proceeds. Simply cost recovery has to be combined with a decentralized management of the proceeds by the beneficiaries, to provide appropriate feedback mechanisms to producers and could embrace:

• Levying grazing fees for communal areas. Such fees have been proposed oftentimes only lilliputian experience exists of them in practise. A organisation of progressive fees, with larger herds paying more per head (Narjisse, 1996), is attractive, particularly for many of the dry areas in Africa where livestock are increasingly concentrated in the hands of outside owners, such as civil servants, traders and crop farmers;

• Full cost recovery especially for h2o supply and animal health services. In many cases, water has been a free resource supplied by the public sector (and frequently financed past the international donor customs). Full cost recovery, including construction costs, should nigh probable reduce the number of big boreholes and, therefore, reduce local degradation effectually these water points;

• Removal of price distortions for other agricultural inputs, in lodge to reduce the conversion of pastoral cardinal resources into marginal crop state.

Nigh donor agencies now accept these every bit basic elements of their pastoral strategy equally shown, for example, by the first-class recent review by IFAD (1995) of common property resources. In addition, African and Centre Eastern government authorities are increasingly adopting participatory and decentralized approaches, with a greater degree of price recovery, although considerable anticipation however persists in assuasive pastoral groups whatever great caste of independence.

Research needs. The key areas where future research is urgently needed emerge from the in a higher place recommendations. With limited opportunities for increasing production, the emphasis must be on conservation. This implies:

• the identification of appropriate indicators to provide reliable information on resource trends in arid areas;

• the evolution of appropriate methodologies for economic appraisal of investment in the conversion of pastoralists' "key resources". These appraisals normally compare just the pasture yield during the dry flavour or summer grazing, with the cereal yields and, in nigh cases, the economical benefits from the increased cereal yields outweigh the pastoral apply. If the affect of crop encroachment on the entire eco-system is calculated, the utilise of such high potential areas for livestock is economically more than efficient, and certainly environmentally more efficient, than conversion into cropland;

• connected enquiry on pastoral institutions;

• the design of sustainable drought preparedness plans, with particular emphasis on decentralized direction and the blueprint of appropriate banking and insurance schemes; and

• the identification of appropriate conflict resolution schemes.

Grazing systems in the semi-arid and sub-humid tropics ^four

^four Areas with respectively 75-180 and 180-270 days growing flavor.

State
Driving forces
Response: Technology and policy options

Although these two zones are combined in this discussion because of their similar physical livestock-surroundings interactions, many of their agro-ecological and socio-economic atmospheric condition are different. The semiarid zones are mostly densely populated. Typical areas include parts of the Sahel, the rainfed crop-livestock areas of Northward Africa, some of the rangelands of Central Asia and the drier areas of the Indian subcontinent. The sub-humid zone savannas have, until recently, been rather sparsely populated considering admission was impeded by human diseases (such equally river incomprehension, African sleeping sickness) and tick-borne diseases in animals. Typical areas include the savannas of West Africa, eastern Republic of colombia and the Cerrados of Brazil, southern and eastern Africa and eastern areas of the Indian subcontinent. These areas are now condign the main borderland for agricultural development and worldwide it is where ruminant livestock numbers nevertheless abound, equally they accommodate, in sub-Saharan Africa an overflow of animals from the drier areas, and, in South America, animals from the Andean Highlands. Livestock interaction involves most components of the surround due east.g. land, h2o and biodiversity.

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